Well, it all depends on who you talk to. I have spent the past year talking to women, hearing funny, sad, and outrageous stories. These women are not whining. They are not even complaining, but they do tell a different story in managing and leading projects. When I talk with women, I am always struck by their honesty, their directness, and their lack of posturing. One truth I have encountered acknowledges -- although conveyed only in private or with a group of other women-is their fear that an acknowledgment of difference between men and women will come to mean an acceptance of inequality. The fear that "different from" will morph into "less than." To support this fear, many women believe that men are more likely than women to be selected as group leaders in business situations. But psychological research on leadership and team interaction suggests that men and women exhibit different leadership styles and interpersonal communication styles in a variety of small group situations.

As part of my doctoral research, I am required to conduct extensive research called a "literature review." A literature review is a deep-dive study on a particular subject or topic-in this case, women and leadership. After a review of several hundred scholarly articles in which research studies can support these claims on various aspects of women and leadership, here is what I have found.

Literature review on women and leadership

Women appear to have a greater need than men do for affiliation over achievement. Men value power, competency, efficiency and achievement. However, this may mean that they fear not being "good enough''. The positive side of this is that men strive to achieve. The negative side is their fear of making mistakes can lead to risk-averse and conservative behavior (O'Leary, 1974).

Women take the leadership role more often in social situations, where men participate more and act as leader more often in task situations (Petzel et al., 1990). In a study of collaborative work groups, Morgan (1994) found that even when a woman had taken the leadership role and performed most of the leadership tasks, if a man had contributed significantly, he was perceived as the leader. Morgan also discovered that if women are to be perceived as leaders, they frequently must do all of the work. This reminds me so much of the commercial on TV where the three male counterparts are standing around watching the woman do the work.

Sapp, Harrod, and Zhao's study (1996) revealed that men were seen as participating more often in group situations, having better arguments, and receiving more attention for their contributions. It was found that shyness and poor communication skills would reduce women's decision making ability (Chen, Lawson, Gordon, & Mclntosh, 1996). To overcome this deficiency, the more education a woman has, the higher her self-esteem, although this is not true for men (Sapp, Harrod, & Zhao).

A woman's adopting a masculine communication style may affect her chances of being accepted as a leader (Jenkins, 1978). Women communicate in a language that demonstrates their values. Phrases such as "working in teams'', "collaboration'', "strategic planning'' and "marketing and communication'' are used by them liberally. In general conversation, men are more likely to be opposing (teasing and the like), while women are more likely to be sharing. Women value communication, relationships, working together towards a common purpose and understanding others. Women have difficulty coming to terms with not being understood. Women appear less threatened by mistakes. Women do not see making a mistake as a comment on competence; it is simply regarded as something to be corrected. On the negative side, women's concern over relationship issues can outweigh the purpose of decision-making (Page, 1996).

Male communication is more directed towards providing answers. Men, mistakenly, offer solutions to women and thereby invalidate women's feelings. Women are more likely than men to talk about their problems as they are seeking personal recognition. They are not looking for solutions. However, male communication, being more strongly directed towards solutions, is often at cross-purposes with women's needs of "I want understanding and I get a solution''. Men pursue solutions to problems with great interest and energy. The negative is that, by reaching solutions too quickly, men may not adequately explore the problem (Page, 1996).

The type of task in which the group is engaged often determines which individual is seen most often as the leader. For example, women are more likely to be seen as leaders in social endeavors, while men are more likely to be viewed as leaders in task-oriented situations (Moss & Kent, 1996). After completing a study in an industrial situation, Megargee (1969) concluded that women generally feel comfortable working for a man, but men frequently feel uncomfortable working for a woman. Men disagree, while women disapprove. Men are better at focusing on issues; women are better at focusing on people. Therefore, men are better at continuing to work with people whose standards differ to their own. Women have more difficulty. This means that men can adapt easier to different situations.

Men tell, women ask. Men are motivated by the need to convey or gather information, whereas women are more likely to communicate not only to convey and gather information, but also to explore their own thinking on issues, to overcome or understand their feelings and to create understanding. Traditional male communication needs is that it creates a communication on a "need to know'' basis. Whereas, women are more exploratory in their communication, and are more likely to communicate issues that are not judged as "necessary'' by men, but, in doing so, can provide a broader understanding in others (Moss & Kent, 1996).

A new leadership approach

While technical ability and skills gain promotion to middle or upper management levels, a different standard applies to reach the senior management echelons. If women professionals are being held back from senior leadership positions due to their values, what does this mean? Women value communication, relationships, working together towards a common purpose, and understanding others. Men, on the other hand, were identified as valuing power, competency, efficiency and achievement. If an emphasis in the leadership positions is based on the technical aspect, it is evident that male values would lead to success. However, one could argue that the emphasis must increasingly move to a more holistic view to successfully manage today's project where diversity is the norm.

Far from seeing women's different management styles as an obstacle, organizations are beginning to advocate this new leadership style. Women's leadership involves more participation, motivation by inclusion, and power by charisma. Today, changes in leadership style means that communication skills have become far more important and that women may have the right skills at the right time (Hawkins, 1995).